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absolute magnitudeThe apparent magnitude that a given star would have if that star were placed 10 parsecs, or 32.6 light years, away from an observer. Absolute magnitude is a measure of the intrinsic brightness of an object
See also
apparent magnitude
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absorption line A dark line in a spectrum that represents the absorption of energy at a particular wavelength of light. Each element on the periodic table absorbs energy at unique wavelengths. Astronomers identify which elements are present in an object, and other information about the object, by measuring these absorption lines.
See also
emission line
spectral line
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accelerationThe rate of change in velocity of an object. |
accretion disk A swirling disk of gas and/or dust orbiting a star or black hole. The material within the disk may generate heat from friction and glow. |
active galaxy A "hyperactive" galaxy that emits more energy than sum of the individual stars within it. These galaxies emit energy at wavelengths across the electromagnetic spectrum, from radio to X-ray, and they have powerful, concentrated, non-thermal energy sources at their cores. Some are also unusually bright at radio, infrared or X-ray wavelengths compared to the Milky Way. Three types of active galaxies are Seyfert Galaxies, quasars, and blazars. Many active galaxies are also radio galaxies. |
alt-az coordintesA system of coordinates that uses altitude and azimuth to locate objects in the night sky. A telescope that uses alt-az coordinates is said to have an alt-az mount. Altitude is an up-down measurement, while azimuth is a left-right measurement.
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altitudeThe measurement, usually in degrees, of an object's apparent height above the horizon. An object on the horizon has an altitude of 0 degrees, and an object at zenith has an altitude of 90 degrees. Altitude and azimuth together are one of several types of coordinate systems that astronomers use to locate astronomical objects in the sky.
See also
alt-az coordintes
azimuth
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Andromeda Galaxy The closest spiral galaxy to the Milky Way that is visible in the northern hemisphere, and the most distant object that can be seen with the unaided eye. The Andromeda Galaxy is 2 million light-years away and is located in the constellation Andromeda, the Chained Maiden. |
Angstrom A unit of length used by astronomers and physicists to measure the wavelength of light. One Angstrom equals 0.0000000001 (10^-10) meter, or about the size of an atom. The symbol for Angstrom is Ĺ. |
annular eclipse An eclipse of the Sun in which the Moon is slightly farther away from the Earth than in a total solar eclipse, so it appears too small to completely cover the sun's disk. The result is a ring of light (an annulus) around the moon at the peak of the eclipse.
See also
solar eclipse
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Antarctic CircleOn the Earth, the small circle located at 66.5 degrees south latitude, which is 23.5 degrees latitude north of the Earth's south pole. Below this latitude, the summer Sun never sets, and the winter Sun never rises.
See also
Arctic Circle
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antimatterA form of matter that is composed of particles that exhibit opposite quantum mechanical properties from particles of normal matter. As an example, positrons are the antimatter particles that correspond to electrons, which are made of regular matter. A positron is simply an electron with a positive, rather than negative, charge. When matter and antimatter particles encounter each other, the annihilate to become energy according to Einstein's famous equation E=mc^2. Pairs of matter and antimatter particles can also be created from energy. Most of the matter in the universe is normal matter; there has been very little antimatter present in the universe since the Big Bang.
See also
matter
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aphelion The point of greatest orbital separation between a planet and the Sun. At aphelion, the planet experiences its minimum orbital velocity around the Sun.
See also
orbit
perihelion
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apogee The point of greatest separation between the Earth and an orbiting satellite, including the Moon. At apogee, the orbiting satellite experiences its minimum orbital velocity around the Earth.
See also
orbit
perigee
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apparent magnitude The magnitude of a star or other celestial body as measured from Earth. Apparent magnitude depends upon the instrinsic brightness of the object and on its distance; that is, near-by objects appear brighter than more distant objects of the same intrinsic brightness.
See also
absolute magnitude
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Arctic Circle On the Earth, the small circle located at 66.5 degrees north latitude, which is 23.5 degrees latitude south of the Earth's north pole. Above this latitude, the summer Sun never sets, and the winter Sun never rises.
See also
Antarctic Circle
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asteroidA small, irregularly shaped rock of iron and nickel, many of which are located in the Asteroid Belt. The largest asteroids are Ceres (900-km diameter), Pallas (500-km diameter), and Vesta (500-km diameter). |
Asteroid Belt A ring of asteroids containing perhaps thousands which measure several kilometers in diameter, and millions of which measure several meters in diameter or smaller. The asteroids travel in orbits between 2 and 3.5 A.U. from the Sun, locating them between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter. |
astrologyThe art of studying the relative positions of the Sun, Moon, planets, and constellations in the zodiac in order to explain and predict events on Earth. Not to be confused with astronomy. |
Astronomical Almanac A book of astronomical facts and tables published annually by the United States Naval Observatory. Astronomers use the information, for example, to locate stars, planets, and asteroids, and to forecast eclipses and lunar phases. |
astronomical unit A unit of length used by astronomers to measure distances in space. One astronomical unit, or A.U., is equal to the average distance between the Earth and Sun, which is 92,955,806 miles or 149,597,870 kilometers. |
astronomyA scientific discipline devoted to the study of the non-terrestrial universe. Not to be confused with astrology. |
atmosphereThe layers of gas that are gravitationally bound above the surface of a planet, moon, or outer layers of a star. |
atom The smallest part of an element of matter that retains the basic characteristics of the element. An atom consists of a tightly packed nucleus composed of protons and neutrons surrounded by a "cloud" of electrons that arrange themselves in an orderly pattern according to the rules of quantum mechanics. Atoms with equal numbers of protons and electrons are electrically neutral; ions are simply atoms that contain more or fewer electrons than protons. Atoms are very small -- much smaller than the wavelength of visible light. The simplest and most abundant atom in the universe is hydrogen, which contains one proton and one electron. |
aurora Beautiful ribbons of light caused by the interaction of high-energy particles in the solar wind and the Earth's magnetic field. These are common near Earth's poles, in both extreme northern latitudes (aurora borealis or Northern Lights) and extreme southern latitudes (aurora australis). |
autumnal equinoxThe equinox that occurs on or near September 21 each year.
See also
equinox
vernal equinox
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azimuthThe measurement, usually in degrees, of an object's apparent angular separation from north. An object that lies due north has an azimuth of 0 degrees, an object that lies due east has an azimuth of 90 degrees, one that lies due south has an azimuth of 180 degrees, and one that lies due west has an azimuth of 270 degrees. Altitude and azimuth together are one of several types of coordinate systems that astronomers use to locate astronomical objects in the sky.
See also
alt-az coordintes
altitude
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Balmer Series A distinct pattern of emission or absorption spectral lines that are caused by the transition of electrons to the n=2 energy level of hydrogen. These spectral lines appear at visible wavelengths, and since stars are mostly composed of hydrogen, the Balmer series of spectral lines is one of the most prominent features in the visible spectrum of a star. The first four Balmer lines of the Balmer series are:
H-alpha: 656.3 nm (red)
H-beta: 486.1 nm (green-blue)
H-gamma: 434.0 nm (blue)
H-delta: 410.1 nm (blue-violet)
See also
Lyman series
spectrum
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barred spiral galaxy A distinct type of galaxy distinguished by a straight bar of stars, gas and dust that cut through the center of the galaxy and then trail off in a spiral pattern. |
Big Bang A theoretical model of the "birth" of the observable universe, which suggests that the universe began as a rapid expansion of space and time from a single point, or singularity. |
Big Crunch A potential fate of the universe in which the observed expansion of the universe is halted by gravity; gravity then pulls the universe back into a singularity. |
binary star One of a pair of stars that orbit around a common center of mass. Three types of binary stars include:
visual binary stars
Binary stars that are identified visually, that is, observers can see two stars orbiting each other.
eclipsing binary stars
Binary stars that are identified by changes in their brightness due to the stars passing in front of one another.
spectroscopic binary stars
Binary stars that are identified by Doppler shifts in their spectrum. These Doppler shifts indicate the presence of an otherwise unseen companion star.
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black body A perfect absorber and radiator of energy, and an object whose spectrum is totally dependent on its temperature. Colder black bodies appear red, and hotter black bodies appear blue, or white. Stars closely mimic blackbodies; cool stars are red while hot stars are blue or white. |
black hole A singularity in space-time from which light and matter cannot escape; an object so massive that the escape velocity is greater than the speed of light. |
blazar (BL Lac Object) A type of active galaxy that varies in brightness over several years. The peculiar appearance and variability associated with these objects may be a result of our viewing perspective. Blazars seem to eject material at superluminal speeds, between 5 and 10 times the speed of light. This apparent violation of the laws of Special Relativity is caused by the angle at which we view the superluminal matter. |
blue shift A displacement of emission or absorption line patterns toward the blue end of the spectrum as a result of the Doppler effect. As a star travels toward an observer, the wavelength of the star light decreases. The observer sees the star as "bluer" than the same star at rest, and the magnitude of the shift corresponds to the velocity of the source.
See also
Doppler effect
red shift
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Brahe, TychoA Danish astronomer who lived from 1546 to 1601. In 1576, the King of Denmark granted him the island of Hveen on which to establish an observatory. Since this was before the invention of the telescope, he designed his own equipment for unaided eye observations. Until 1597 he made very accurate observations at Hveen, then moved to Prague. His very detailed records were later used by Johannes Kepler to discern Kepler's three laws of planetary motion. |
brightness A measure of the amount of energy that reaches Earth from a source, such as a star, galaxy, or planet. Brightness depends on both the intrinsic luminosity (or power output)
of the object, and how far away it is. For instance, at the orbit of Pluto, the Sun appears much less bright than at Earth.
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brown dwarf A "failed" star, larger than a planet but smaller than a star, that is not massive enough to ignite a nuclear fusion reaction at its core. |
calcium H and KTwo broad absorption lines caused by singly ionized calcium (Ca II), located between 380 nm and 400 nm. These lines are very prominent in cool stars and in almost all galaxies. |
carbon cycle A nuclear fusion reaction cycle that occurs in the cores of stars with masses greater than that of our Sun, with temperatures exceeding 16 million degrees. The reaction cycle involves carbon (C), nitrogen (N), oxygen (O), hydrogen (H) and helium (He). Hydrogen is fused into helium with the help of carbon, which acts as a catalyst to the reaction. |
carbonaceous chondrite A rare type of meteorite containing water and complex organic compounds. These meteorites may be fossil remnants of our early Solar System. |
Cassegrain focus A style of focus for reflecting telescopes for which the focal point lies behind the primary mirror. In order to achieve this focus, a reflecting telescope must have a secondary mirror and a hole cut in the center of the primary mirror. Such an optical arrangement compacts the size of the telescope tube and centers the mass close to the primary mirror. |
Cassini division A 5000-km gap in Saturn's ring system observable through small telescopes. G.D. Cassini discovered this dark gap in Saturn's rings in 1675. |
celestial equator The projection of Earth's equator onto the sky. For an observer standing on Earth's equator, the celestial equator would extend from the eastern horizon, through the zenith, then to the western horizon. The celestial equator is part of the celestial sphere. |
celestial pole The north or south projection of Earth's rotation axis onto the sky. In the northern hemisphere, the north celestial pole is within a degree of Polaris, the North Star. |
celestial sphere A coordinate system similar to Earth's latitude and longitude used to locate planets, stars, star clusters, nebulae and galaxies. The celestial sphere is centered on Earth, and it includes the celestial equator, the north and south celestial poles, and lines of right ascension and declination. |
center of mass Within a system of masses, the point that can be used to represent the entire mass of the system. Massive bodies in space, such as binary stars, orbit around a center of mass. |
centimeterA unit of linear measurement that is equal to 1/100 of a meter, or about 0.4 inch. Centimeters are abbreviated cm.
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Cepheid variable An unstable star whose brightness changes periodically. In 1912, Henrietta Leavitt discovered what is known as the Period-Luminosity Relationship for Cepheid variables, by which the period of the brightness change is related to the luminosity, and therefore the distance, of the star. An astronomer can record the changing brightness of a Cepheid variable and plot the brightness change over time to create a light curve for the star. The distance to the Cepheid variable is then obtained by measuring the period of the light curve. |
Ceres With a 900-km diameter, the largest of the asteroids. Ceres was the first asteroid discovered, and so is often referred to as "1 Ceres." It was discovered on January 1, 1801, by Giuseppe Piazzi in Palermo, Italy. Ceres' orbital period is 4.6 years, at an average distance of 2.7 A.U. |
Chandrasekhar limit Equal to 1.4 solar masses, the maximum mass a dying star may have and still turn into a white dwarf star. Dying stars with masses greater than 1.4 solar masses collapse into neutron stars or black holes. Subrahamanyan Chadrasekhar, at age 19 in 1930, worked out this limiting mass while on a steamship to England, where he planned to present his astrophysical work. |
Chandrasekhar massEqual to 1.4 times the mass of the Sun. This particular measure of mass is applicable to the Chandrasekhar limit, for which the fate of a star depends on its mass being more or less than this amount. |
charge-coupled device (CCD) A light-recording device that has revolutionized modern astronomy. A CCD is a silicon wafer, about the size of a thumbnail, that converts light into an electronic signal which may be manipulated and stored on a computer. CCD recording efficiency is very high, about 80 to 95 percent, compared to its predecessor, photographic plates, which have an efficiency of about one percent. Astronomers mount CCD chips into cameras on telescopes, allowing them to see 9 to 10 times farther out into space than they could with photographic plates. |
chromosphere Literally meaning "sphere of color," the chromosphere is an outer layer of the solar atmosphere sandwiched between the photosphere and the corona. Prominent features of the chromosphere include spicules, bright hydrogen alpha emission lines, and calcium H and K emission lines. The emission lines suggest that the chromosphere is
thousands of degrees hotter than the photosphere.
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cluster (star or galaxy)A grouping of the same types of astronomical objects. For example, stars in the Milky Way can group together into open clusters or globular clusters. Galaxies also group together into cluster of galaxies, and the clusters of galaxies group together into superclusters of galaxies.
See also
globular cluster
open cluster
supercluster
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collimating mirrorA special type of mirror that causes beams of light that strike the mirror at various angles to reflect off it parallel to each other. This type of mirror is said to collimate the light.
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comet An icy, "dirty snowball" (Fred L. Whipple) that orbits the Sun. The majority of comets orbit well beyond Pluto in halos known as the Kuiper Belt and the Oort Cloud that surround the Solar System. Comet size ranges from a few meters to a few kilometers in diameter. Upon close encounters with the Sun, comet ices vaporize, creating a coma, or cloud, around the comet, and a long tail that always points away from the Sun. |
conjunction A geometrical arrangement of the Earth, Sun and one or more planets in a line, with the Sun between the Earth and the planet(s). The complementary arrangement is called opposition, when the Earth is between the Sun and the planet(s).
See also
opposition
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Conservation of Energy The principle that states that energy is neither created nor destroyed, merely exchanged from one form to another. Thus for any closed system (for example, a star or the universe), the total energy is constant, but the amount of energy in any one form may change.
See also
Conservation of Mass
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Conservation of MassThe principle that states that mass is neither created nor destroyed, merely exchanged from one form to another. Thus for any closed system, the total mass is constant, but the amount of energy in any one form may change.
See also
Conservation of Energy
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constellation A meaningful pattern of stars visible with the unaided eye, literally meaning "group of stars" in Latin. Americans know Northern Hemisphere constellations by the names given them by ancient Babylonians and Greeks. Seafaring explorers named many of the constellations in the Southern Hemisphere. |
continuous spectrum A smooth-looking spectrum without absorption or emission lines that indicates a thermal source of radiation, such as a light bulb, star, or other piece of glowing matter. |
continuumThe constant background of a spectrum against which emission or absorption lines can be seen. |
Copernicus, NicholasA Polish astronomer who lived from 1473 to 1543. Copernicus is most famous for inventing the Copernican system, which is also known as the heliocentric theory. The Copernican system is a model for our Solar System in which the Earth and all other planets orbit around the Sun and the Sun is the center of the universe. In contrast, scientists before Copernicus ascribed to the Ptolemaic system, also known as the geocentric theory. The Ptolemaic system stated that all the planets, the Moon, and the Sun orbited the Earth, which was the center of the universe. |
corona Literally meaning "crown," it is the outer layer of the Sun made of very thin plasma heated to 1,000,000 Kelvin. The corona is only visible during a total solar eclipse. |
Cosmic Background Radiation (CBR)An electromagnetic radiation field at a black body temperature of 2.7 Kelvin that fills the entire universe uniformly to 0.00001 Kelvin. Also known as the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB), it is thought to be the residual glow from the very hot early universe that followed the Big Bang. |
Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) See Cosmic Background Radiation (CBR). |
cosmic rays High-energy particles that fly through the universe at speeds approximating the speed of light. Cosmic rays are mostly the atomic nuclei of hydrogen, helium, carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen that were possibly ejected from supernovae. |
cosmology The study of the past, present, and future of the universe, including the structure and evolution of energy, matter, space, and time. |
Coudé focusA style of focus for reflecting telescopes for which light is brought to a focal point in a location remote from the telescope. In order to achieve this focus, a telescope must have secondary and tertiary mirrors to direct light into a "Coudé room" or a "spectrograph room" near the telescope, where it is passed though optical components and recorded. |
crater A bowl shaped blemish left on the surface of a planet or moon as the result of an meteoroid impact. Several craters exist on the Earth, and thousands litter the surface of the Moon, Mercury, and other Solar System bodies. |
dark matter Theoretical non-luminous matter that has eluded detection by all present means, except through gravitational interaction with luminous objects. Astronomers and astrophysicists calculate that dark matter comprises more than 90 percent of the universe. Possible sources of dark matter include undetected clumps of interstellar dust and gas, stellar remnants such as white dwarfs and neutron stars, neutrinos that have mass, and some as yet unknown form of matter. |
declination The measure in degrees of the position of a celestial object north or south of the celestial equator. If an object is on the celestial equator, it has a declination of 0 degrees, and if it is on the north or south celestial pole, it has a declination of +90 degrees or –90 degrees. Declination is analogous to latitude on the Earth, which measures terrestrial positions north or south of the equator. right ascension and declination together comprise a coordinate system that allows astronomers to locate objects in the sky.
See also
equatorial coordinates
right ascension
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degreesA unit of angular measure equal to 60 arc minutes or 3600 arc seconds. One degree is equal to the diameter of two full Moons.
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density The amount of mass per unit of volume. |
deuteriumA form of hydrogen that consists of a proton, neutron, and electron. Because it has one more neutron than most hydrogen, which is merely a proton and an electron, it is often called "heavy hydrogen," and it is denoted by D. |
diffraction The bending of light around an opaque physical edge that demonstrates the wave nature of light. |
diffraction gratingA glass surface into which fine grooves have been cut, allowing light to be "spread" into its component colors, creating a spectrum. The groove dimensions correspond to wavelengths of light, usually around 500 nm (green). |
domeIn astronomy, the building that houses a telescope. The roof of a telescope dome has a dome shape, and there is a shutter that opens and closes, allowing the telescope to view the sky.
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Doppler effect A measurable shift in the wavelength of a traveling wave caused by the relative motion of the source and observer. If a source and observer are approaching each other, the wavelength of incoming light is shifted to shorter, or bluer, wavelengths; if a source and observer are receding from each other, the wavelength of incoming light is shifted to longer, or redder, wavelengths. Stars with relative motion toward an astronomer appear bluer than they would otherwise, i.e. the entire spectrum of star light shifts toward the blue end of the spectrum or is blue-shifted. Stars speeding away from the astronomer appear redder than they would otherwise, i.e. the entire spectrum is red-shifted. The expansion of the universe can be detected because the farther away a celestial object is from the Earth, the more it tends to be red-shifted.
See also
blue shift
red shift
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Earth The third planet from the Sun in the Solar System, and the planet on which people live. The Earth orbits the Sun at an average distance of 1.0 A.U. and has a mass of 6x10^24 kg. It is made of solid, rocky materials such as iron, nickel, and silicon, and it has an atmosphere composed mainly of nitrogen, oxygen, argon, and carbon dioxide. Liquid water oceans cover 75% of the planet's surface. Earth has one moon. |
eccentricity A measure of the shape of an ellipse, such as the orbit of a body around a center of mass, that compares the lengths of the semimajor, or longest, axis and the semiminor, or shortest, axis. The eccentricity of a circle is zero, while a highly elliptical orbital path of a comet might be 0.9. |
eclipse Total or partial masking of a celestial body by another along the line of sight. Solar eclipses result from the Moon blocking the Sun relative to the Earth; thus Earth, Moon and Sun all lie on a line. Lunar eclipses work the same way in a different order: the Earth is between the Sun and the Moon. In this case the Earth's shadow hides the Moon from view. |
eclipsing binary A system of two stars that periodically eclipse one another from our point of view on Earth. Astronomers cleverly use these observations to calculate mass, size, and distance. One noted eclipsing binary is called Algol, with a period of 2.87 days and a change in magnitude of 1.2.
See also
binary star
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ecliptic The Sun's path across the sky. The Moon and the planets follow this path closely, since their orbital planes are nearly aligned with Earth's orbital plane. The ecliptic is tilted 23.5 degrees from the celestial equator. |
effective temperature The temperature of a star's outermost visible layer, the photosphere. Temperatures vary throughout a star, from millions of degrees in the core to thousands of degrees in the outer stellar atmosphere. The overall color of a star is related to its effective temperature. The dominant color of the star's spectrum is the wavelength range in which the star radiates most of its energy. For example, stars with cooler stellar atmospheres than our Sun appear orange and red. Those with hotter temperatures are blue and white. In addition, astronomers can combine the effective temperature of a star with other information to calculate the temperature of the stellar core. |
Einstein, AlbertA Swiss mathematician and physicist who lived from 1879 – 1955. Einstein was born in Germany to Jewish parents, and after moving to Switzerland, he took a job at a patent office. When he began publishing scientific papers, he quickly rose to fame and was recognized as a leading thinker of the time. He held several different professorial positions in Switzerland, Germany, and the United States during his lifetime. In 1922, Einstein won a Nobel Prize for work he had done with the Photoelectric Effect. Over the course of his life, Einstein made major advances in physics, such as developing the Theory of Special Relativity and the Theory of General Relativity. He was arguably the most important physicist of the 20th century.
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electromagnetic radiation Energy that travels through space at the speed of light. The total range of electromagnetic
wavelengths and frequencies is called the electromagnetic spectrum. Radio waves have the lowest energies and longest wavelengths, extending on the order of meters, of all types of electromagnetic radiation. X-rays and gamma-rays have the highest energies and shortest wavelengths, about the size of atoms. Wavelengths of light are measured in microns, millionths of meters. For all forms of electromagnetic radiation, the speed of light must remain constant, regardless of wavelength or frequency.
See also
light
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electromagnetic spectrum The full range of electromagnetic radiation in order of wavelength from longest to shortest, or frequency from lowest to highest. In order, the types of radiation that make up the electromagnetic spectrum include radio, microwave, infrared, visible, ultraviolet, x-ray, and gamma-ray. Our eyes are only sensitive to the sliver of the electromagnetic spectrum we call visible light. Astronomers use instruments that can observe as much of the electromagnetic spectrum as possible to learn about the nature and history of the universe.
See also
light
spectrum
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electronThe electron is a fundamental subatomic particle that carries a negative electric charge. It participates in electromagnetic interactions, and its mass is less than one thousandth of that of the smallest atom. Its electric charge is defined by convention to be negative, with a value of −1 in atomic units. Together with atomic nuclei (protons and neutrons), electrons make up atoms; their interaction with adjacent nuclei is the main cause of chemical bonding. |
ellipse A closed shape resulting from the intersection of a circular cone and a plane, resembling an oval. In space, orbiting bodies follow elliptical paths.
See also
ellipticity
orbit
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ellipticityA measure of the amount an ellipse deviates from a perfect circle. |
elongation The angle between a planet and the Sun in the sky. Because Mercury and Venus are inside the Earth's orbit, their elongation angles are never more than 23 degrees (for Mercury) or 46 degrees (for Venus), which is why they appear as "morning" or "evening" stars, never as "midnight stars." All other planets, though, with orbits outside the Earth's, can appear at any elongation angle. When a planet reaches the greatest angular separation east of west of the Sun in the sky, it is said to have reached greatest elongation. The maximum elongation for Venus and Mercury is 46 and 23 degrees, respectively. The maximum elongation of planets outside the orbit of the Earth is 180 degrees, when the planet is said to be at opposition. At these points in the sky, planets are visible for the longest period of time.
See also
conjunction
opposition
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emission line Within a spectrum, an excess amount of energy that is emitted at a specific wavelength. Emission lines in a spectrum usually appear as slender slivers of light on a dark background. The extra light at these wavelengths results from an electron "falling" from a high atomic energy state to a lower energy state. When this happens, the atom emits a photon, or discrete unit of energy in the form of light. The difference in energy between the two energy states determines the wavelength and frequency (color) of the emission line.
An absorption line is just the opposite of an emission line. Instead of emitting a photon, an absorption line represents an atom absorbing a photon at a specific wavelength and energy. In a spectrum, absorption lines appear as darkened slivers, where light is missing from the spectrum.
See also
absorption line
spectral line
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energyThe ability to do work on another object. Energy comes in many forms, including kinetic, potential, and thermal. It is what causes things to move and to have temperature. On Earth, we create electrical energy for our homes at power plants, we turn gasoline into energy to make our cars run, and we eat foods so that our bodies have energy to move. Plants use energy from the sun to grow, and gravitational energy causes objects to fall to the ground. In space, stars shine because of the energetic reactions that take place in their cores and galaxies form and rotate with the energy of the objects that they contain. In his famous equation E=mc^2, Einstein showed that mass and energy are equivalent. Like ice and liquid water, mass can be thought of as a solidified version of energy.
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equatorial coordinatesA system of coordinates that uses right ascension and declination to locate objects in the night sky. A telescope that uses equatorial coordinates is said to have an equatorial mount.
See also
declination
right ascension
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equinox The time of year when the Sun is located in the sky at the intersection of the ecliptic and the celestial equator. Two such points exist: the vernal equinox, which is approximately March 21, marks the start of spring, and the autumnal equinox, approximately September 20, marks the start of autumn. At each of these points, the Sun rises due east and sets due west, and every place on Earth receives 12 hours of daylight and 12 hours of darkness. |
ergA unit of energy commonly used by astronomers. Ergs have units of gcm^2/s^2, and one erg is equal to 0.0000001 Joule. |
escape velocity The minimum speed necessary to escape the gravitational pull of a celestial body. For example, a rocket launched from Kennedy Space Center must accelerate to at least 11.18 km/s, or 18,300 m.p.h. to escape Earth's gravitational pull. |
event horizon The radius of a black hole within which no light or matter can escape, because the escape velocity necessary to overcome the gravitational pull exceeds the speed of light. |
extrasolar planetA planet that orbits around a star other than the Sun. |
focal length The distance between a lens or mirror and its focal point. This length is usually stated in terms of the diameter of the lens or mirror; for example, a reflecting telescope of focal length f/4 has a focal length that is four times larger than the diameter of the primary mirror. Generally, longer focal lengths permit higher magnification, but smaller fields of view. |
focal pointThe point in an optical path where beams of light converge to a point, creating a focused image of an object. |
focus 1) To bring beams of light into a convergent point, or focal point. An image created by beams of light at the focal point is said to be "in focus." Focused images have sharp edges, as opposed to being fuzzy or blurry. In smaller telescopes, astronomers place an eyepiece close to the focus in order to project the telescope focal point onto an observers eye. In larger telescopes, astronomers place a CCD camera at the focal point to capture the focused light.
2) One of two fixed points inside an ellipse. The foci of an ellipse help to define the curve of the ellipse itself.
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forceThe result of an event that produces pressure or causes an object of non-zero mass to accelerate. Everyday examples of force include a person pushing a door open, pulling a rope, or tightening a screw. There are four fundamental forces that cause such actions to happen: gravity, the electromagnetic force, the weak force, and the strong force. Gravity and the electromagnetic force are the two forces with which people are usually familiar; the weak force and the strong force apply to subatomic particles. |
frequency The number of oscillations, or cycles, within one second. Frequency refers to anything that exhibits the properties of a wave. For example, sound waves are produced when a piano or guitar string vibrates; when this happens at a frequency of 440 times per second, we hear the specific musical note middle C. Likewise, a "vibrating" electron emits electromagnetic waves. When the electron vibrates about 600 thousand billion times in one second, it emits green light.
Ocean waves also have frequencies that you can measure by counting the number of times a floating buoy bobs up and down. With a stop-watch, count the bobs for one minute (one "bob" = one cycle), then divide by 60 to calculate the frequency of the buoy in bobs per second (cycles per second).
See also
light
wavelength
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galaxy A vast island of stars, gas, and dust, billions of which populate the universe. Galactic size and structure vary greatly and range from enormous elliptical and grand spiral galaxies to tiny irregular galaxies. Galaxies are classified according to their structural properties, as can be seen on the Tuning Fork Diagram, originally drawn by Edwin Hubble in the early 1900s. Our own galaxy, the Milky Way, is a medium-sized spiral galaxy made of about 100 billion stars. Galaxies tend to exist in groups, called clusters, and the clusters also clump together into groups called superclusters. Clusters and superclusters of galaxies are not randomly scattered throughout the universe, but instead stay together in web-like or foam-like structures. These structures form giant filaments and walls, leaving great empty voids in between. |
Galilei, Galileo An Italian scientist who lived from 1564 to 1642. Among many other interests, Galileo studied astronomy and constructed the first telescope for astronomy. He used the telescope to discover sunspots, craters on the Moon, and the four largest moons of Jupiter. Galileo supported the Copernican system for the Solar System, postulated by Nicholas Copernicus in 1543. As a result, he was brought up before the Catholic Inquisition, where he was forced to recant. |
gamma-ray radiationThe most energetic wavelength, or frequency, of light that is known. Gamma-rays have wavelengths smaller than 10^-11 meters and in frequencies larger than 10^20 Hz. They can be quite harmful to life because they are strong enough to ionize atoms and thus destroy cells. Fortunately, the Earth's atmosphere shields us from all astronomical gamma-ray radiation. |
GaussA unit used by astronomers to measure the strength of magnetic fields, abbreviated G. One Gauss is equal to 0.0001 Tesla. |
General Theory of Relativity "Space tells mass how to move" while "mass tells space how to curve" -- J.A. Wheeler. A mathematical model created by Albert Einstein in the years 1909-1916. It describes gravity as curvature in space-time, the four-dimensional fabric of our universe. His theory is the best model for gravity so far, and has been confirmed in experiments and observations. According to the theory, measurements made in time and space are not absolute, but relative to an observer's particular point of view, or reference frame. However, regardless of point of view (as measured by speed and direction), the speed of light is unchanged. The consequences of the laws of General relativity include concepts such as black holes, parallel universes, worm holes, and space-time.
See also
Einstein, Albert
Special Theory of Relativity
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geodesicA path between two points that follows the shortest possible distance between those two points. In a curved space, geodesics are curved lines, and on the surface of spheres, geodesics are great circles. |
globular cluster A ball of one hundred thousand to one million stars that resides in the halo of our galaxy and other galaxies. Because globular clusters contain stars that have been physically separated from the main part of the galaxy, they have evolved in relative isolation. As a result, globular clusters still hold the original mix of material that made the galaxy. There are about 250 globular clusters that form a spherical halo around the Milky Way. Messier 13, a bright globular cluster in the constellation Hercules, is a classic example easily seen with binoculars or a small telescope. |
gramA unit of measure for mass. |
gravity One of the four fundamental forces in the universe that affect all matter. It is the weakest of these four forces, and it is an attractive force. The magnitude of gravitational attraction depends directly on the mass of the two objects being attracted and inversely on the square of the distance between them. For instance, the gravitational attraction between a person and the Earth is much greater than that between a person and the Sun. Even though the Sun is 330,000 times more massive than the Earth, it is about 100 million times farther away from it than a person is. This distance weakens the gravitational attraction between the person and the Sun, so that the Earth's gravitational pull on a person at Earth's surface is 1653 times greater than the Sun's. |
gravity waves Ripples in space-time created by the stretching and squeezing effects of massive objects,
notably supernovae, binary black holes, and binary neutron stars. Gravity waves are
transverse waves, meaning that they stretch and squeeze space-time in directions perpendicular to the wave's motion. Einstein's Theory of General Relativity predicts the existence of gravity waves, but they have not yet been detected.
See also
gravity
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great circleA circle on the surface of a sphere whose center is also the center of the sphere. Lines of longitude and the equator are examples of great circles on the Earth.
See also
small circle
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Great Red Spot A raging red swirling storm located in Jupiter's upper atmosphere that can be seen as a red spot on Jupiter from Earth. The storm has been observed for the last 300 years, and appears to rotate counterclockwise, like a hurricane, once every six days. During the 1979 Voyager II encounter with Jupiter, the Red Spot measured 10,000 by 20,000 kilometers- larger than the Earth! |
greatest elongation The maximum separation between Mercury or Venus and the Sun in the sky. Mercury and Venus peak as "evening stars" at their greatest eastern elongations, and as "morning stars" during their greatest western elongation. Geometrically, the greatest elongation of Venus occurs when a line tangent to the orbit of Venus intersects Venus and the Earth, and the greatest elongation of Mercury occurs when a line tangent to the orbit of Mercury intersects Mercury and the Earth. |
H I region Neutral hydrogen regions located in interstellar space. H I regions are vast, cold clouds of hydrogen that line the spiral arms of our own galaxy. Astronomers detect dim but distinct H I radiation at the "21-cm line" with radio telescopes. This is the wavelength of energy radiated during a hydrogen quantum spin flip. Astronomers gauge the mass and structure of our galaxy and other galaxies with the luminosity of H I regions. |
H II regionIonized hydrogen regions located in interstellar space. H II regions are visible as a part of nebulae, where hot young stars ionize their nearby hydrogen womb. As hydrogen recombines, it radiates at several specific wavelengths as electrons descend through atomic energy levels. From the 3rd to 2nd energy level, an electron radiates a photon at 656.0 nm (red light) giving such H II regions a red glow. Astronomers use the luminosity of H II regions to gauge the rate of star formation within a nebula. |
haloIn astronomy, the spherical mix of globular star cluster and dark matter that surrounds a galaxy.
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heliumAn element, usually in the form of a gas, whose nucleus is made of two protons and two neutrons. Helium is the second-most abundant element in the universe, after hydrogen, and accounts for about 25% of the composition of the universe. Helium is also the product of hydrogen fusion in stars. |
Hertzsprung-Russell Diagram A plot of stellar luminosity versus effective temperature that reveals an orderly pattern of stellar evolution. The H-R Diagram provides astronomers the stellar "big picture," a handful of conceptual hooks on which to hang billions of stars. The most prominent feature is the main sequence, where stars spend the majority of their luminous life. The main sequence represents a stable zone where the temperature, luminosity, and lifetime of the star are dependent on its mass: large stars are bright and blue, but only shine
for tens of millions of years before running out of fuel, while small stars glow a dim red for many billions of years. Another area of interest on the diagram stretches horizontally off the main sequence and is called the Giant Branch. Stars in this region of the diagram have outer atmospheres that have expanded to be close to the size of the orbital radius of Mercury. Above the Giant Branch is the area where supergiant stars are located. These stars are of enormous size. If the Sun were the size of Betelgeuse, an orange supergiant in Orion's left shoulder, it would swallow the Earth. Another important group of stars called white dwarf reside in the low-luminosity, high-temperature corner of the H-R diagram. These stellar remnants glow with heat generated from their collapse from the size of the Sun to the size of the Earth.
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Hubble Classification System A classification of galaxies based on their visual appearance in a telescope, invented by Edwin Hubble in 1936. In his paper, "The Realm of the Nebulae," Hubble introduced a "tuning fork" diagram of galaxy types that included:
Spiral
Pinwheel-shaped galaxies with a bright compact center, or bulge, surrounded by graceful spiral arms. Our galaxy is considered a spiral, as is the Andromeda Galaxy.
Barred spiral
Contains two sickle shaped spiral arms extending from a central bulge.
Elliptical
Smooth football-shaped galaxies with little gas and dust between stars. These look like glowing cotton balls in a telescope. Most of the Local Group galaxies are ellipticals.
Lenticular
Similar to spirals, but without any spiral structure.
Irregular
Galactic blobs without definite shape. These could represent casualties of galactic collisions. Two nearby examples are the Large and Small Magellanic clouds.
In 1959, Dr. Gerald de Vaucouleurs suggested expanding the classification of spiral galaxies to incorporate a greater variety of spirals than Hubble allowed in his tuning fork diagram. He also organized galaxy types in a three dimensional scheme that formed a continuous boundary for all galactic types, instead of the two dimensional tuning fork form. This three dimensional shape looks like a lemon, with ellipticals and irregulars on the ends and spirals in the center.
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Hubble Constant The present expansion rate of the universe, symbolized by H and measured in units of km/s/Mpc or kilometers per second per megaparsec. In 1929, Edwin Hubble discovered that the Doppler red shifts of other galaxies are directly proportional to their distances from the Milky Way. The constant of proportionality in the relationship is called the Hubble Constant, and it has been measured to be between 50 and 100 km/s/Mpc. In order to check its validity, astronomers use many various observation techniques that each independently derive H. |
Hubble, EdwinAn American astronomer who lived from 1889 to 1953. Hubble discovered the expansion of the universe by measuring the red shifts of many galaxies. He also discovered that the recession velocity of a given galaxy is proportional to its distance from the Milky Way.
See also
Hubble Constant
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hydrogenAn element, usually in the form of a gas, whose nucleus is made of one proton. Hydrogen is the most abundant element in the universe, accounting for about 75% of the composition of the universe. |
hydrostatic equilibrium The balance maintained within a star between the explosive pressure of the core caused by heat and the gravitational attraction of the mass of the star itself. This equilibrium allows the star to have a controlled nuclear fusion reaction and a steady radiation rate or luminosity. Stars achieve and maintain hydrostatic equilibrium during their main sequence life on the H-R Diagram. |
inertiaThe property of objects with mass to remain at rest if they are already at rest, or to stay in motion if they are already moving.
See also
Newton, Isaac & Newton's Laws
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inflationA sudden and dramatic expansion of the universe after the Big Bang. |
infrared radiationA wavelength, or frequency, of light that is slightly less energetic than visible light, but more energetic than radio or microwave radiation. Infrared radiation ranges in wavelength between 10^-6 to 10^-4 meters and in frequency between 10^12 and 10^14 Hz. Infrared radiation is not strong enough to ionize atoms. |
interstellar dust Pockets of micron-size grains of carbon, iron, and iron-magnesium silicates scattered at varying densities between the stars in galaxies. |
interstellar gas Mostly hydrogen and helium scattered at varying densities between the stars in our galaxy and other galaxies. The proportions of the gases are similar to those in the Sun. Interstellar gas supplies the raw material for star formation. Carbon monoxide and hydroxyl molecules (CO and OH) have also been detected within interstellar gas, along with highly ionized oxygen, nitrogen, carbon and silicon, which are likely remnants of past supernovae. |
interstellar medium Regions of space between stars populated by gas and dust. Astronomers presently estimate that the interstellar medium accounts for 10 percent of galactic mass. |
ion A negatively or positively charged atom. Normally, atoms are electrically neutral; the amount of positive and negative charge is equal. Energetic photons may excite and eject electrons from the atom, thus leaving a net positive charge. This process is called ionization.
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isotopeA species of a given element that has more or fewer neutrons per atomic nucleus than other species of atoms of that element. |
JouleA unit of energy commonly used by physicists. Joules have units of kg m^2/s^2, and they are abbreviated J. |
Jupiter The fifth planet from the Sun and the largest planet in our Solar System. Jupiter orbits the Sun at an average distance of 5.2 A.U.. The planet has a mass 318 times the mass of the Earth and a radius 11.2 times the radius of the Earth. Jupiter is a gas planet and has no solid surface. It is made of molecular hydrogen and helium, with trace amounts of ammonia, water vapor, and methane. The most recognizable features of the planet are its red and white bands of clouds and a giant storm visible from Earth called the Great Red Spot. Jupiter has 16 moons, the largest of which are Io, Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto.
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Kelvin (K) A unit of temperature equal in magnitude to Celsius (1 K = 1 degree C) and abbreviated with K. Zero degrees Celsius, the freezing point of water, equals 273.15 K. Absolute Zero is defined as 0 K. The surface of the Sunis about 6000 K, while nuclear fusion reactions deep in the center of the Sun raise the temperature to about 15 million K.
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Kepler, Johannes & Kepler's Laws A German mathematician and astronomer who lived from 1571 - 1630. Kepler was the first person to model planetary orbits as ellipses instead of circles. He tested his theory of elliptical orbits using Danish astronomer Tycho Brahe's observations of planetary motion in the sky. In 1609, he published his findings in a book called Astronomia nova or The New Astronomy, where he summarized planetary motion with three rules, or laws.
Kepler's First Law, the Law of Ellipses
A planetary orbit is an ellipse with the Sun at one focus.
Kepler's Second Law, the Law of Equal Areas
As a planet orbits the Sun, it sweeps out equal areas of the ellipse in equal times. This behavior means that the planet's orbital velocity varies with distance from the Sun. At perihelion, the planet is at maximum speed and at aphelion the planet crawls along at minimum speed.
Kepler's Third Law, the Harmonic Law
Even though the orbital velocity of a planet changes constantly, one relationship does remain constant. The orbital period is directly related to the average distance between the planet and the Sun. This law implies that planetary orbital velocity decreases with increasing distance from the Sun. For instance, the orbital velocity of Mercury (47.9 km/s) is far greater than Pluto (4.7 km/s).
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kilometerA unit of linear measurement that is equal to 1000 meters, or 0.6 miles. Kilometers are abbreviated km. |
Kuiper BeltA ring of small, icy objects that surrounds the Solar System beyond the orbit of Neptune. Postulated by American astronomer Gerard P. Kuiper in 1952, it is thought to be the birthplace of comets whose periods are less than 200 years, such as Halley's Comet. |
Large Magellanic Cloud (LMC) A satellite galaxy of our galaxy that lives "next door," only 169,000 light-years away. The LMC contains more than 30 million stars, and stretches more than 50,000 light-years from end to end, but is visible only from the Southern Hemisphere, 70 degrees south of the celestial equator. In 1987, astronomers detected a supernova in the LMC, called 1987A. The close proximity of 1987A gave astronomers a front-row seat to study supernova evolution and measure the distance to the LMC. |
light Electromagnetic radiation of all wavelengths and frequencies. The familiar "rainbow" of light spans a very narrow range in the electromagnetic spectrum, from 700 nm (red) to 400 nm (blue). While the wavelengths of red and blue light differ by less than a factor of two, the entire electromagnetic spectrum spans more than a factor of 10^18, (1 followed by 18 zeroes) from radio to gamma-ray wavelengths. Radio wavelengths can be the size of mountains while gamma ray wavelengths are the size of an atomic nucleus. |
light curve Brightness or intensity of light from a celestial source plotted against time on a graph. Astronomers use light curves, for example, to discover dark companions of stars. As a dark object orbits in front of a star, thus partially eclipsing it, the brightness falls, producing a dip on the light curve. Careful analysis of the light curve, together with other information, reveals the masses of the star and dark companion plus the distance to the eclipsing binary system. |
light gathering power A measure of a telescope's ability to collect light. Light gathering power is proportional to the telescope's lens or mirror surface area. It is advantageous for astronomers to observe through large aperture telescopes because the increased light gathering power allows them to see faint, distant objects and detail of nearby objects. |
light-year A unit of length used by astronomers to measure distance. One light-year is equal to the distance light travels in one year, which is about 5.88 trillion miles or almost 800 times the diameter of our Solar System. The nearest star is a mere four light-years away, while the nearest spiral galaxy lies 2.2 million light-years from Earth. |
Local Group Our galactic neighborhood, including the Milky Way, the Andromeda Galaxy, M33, and more than 25 smaller galaxies. The Local Group appears to be a suburb of a supercluster of galaxies called the Virgo Supercluster that lies 60 million light-years away, in the direction of the constellation Virgo. |
luminosity A measure of the rate of energy flowing from a source, such as a galaxy, star, or light bulb. Luminosity tells astronomers how fast energy "leaks" from the star. It is a measure of power, and it is measured in units called watts. Given the luminosity of a star, an astronomer can calculate the distance to the star by measuring the star's brightness. Luminosity is also related to temperature, mass and size of a star. |
luminosity class A shorthand description of a star based on spectral line widths denoted by the Roman numerals I toV. For a given spectral type, the luminosity of the star decreases from I through V. Our Sun is a G2 V star. The Roman numeral V denotes the luminosity class, which is the main sequence, while G2 refers to a spectral class. Thus, the luminosity of a B8 I supergiant star is far greater than that of a B8 V main sequence star, yet the surface temperatures are equal. The prominent hydrogen absorption-line patterns are the same for both stars, but the width of the absorption lines differ. The B8 V star lines are wider than the B8 I lines, indicating a vast difference in luminosity. |
lunarHaving to do with a moon. |
lunar eclipse A spectacular, though relatively common, celestial event that occurs when the Moon, Earth and Sun are aligned in space. The full Moon travels through Earth's shadow and grows much darker, but it does not disappear entirely. |
lunar phases The apparent shapes of the Moon as seen from the Earth, which are caused by the Moon's orbit of the Earth once every 29.5 days. The same phase will fall on the same date of the year according to the Saros cycle, every 18 years, 11 days, and eight hours. The phases of the Moon are:
New Moon
In conjunction with the Sun; rises and sets with it. Zero percent illuminated, 0 degrees elongation.
Waxing Crescent
Prominent just after sunset; less than 50 percent illumination.
First Quarter
Rises at noon and sets at midnight; 50 percent illuminated, 90 degrees east elongation.
Waxing Gibbous
Lunar illumination increasing between first quarter and full.
Full Moon
In opposition with the Sun; rises at sunset and sets at sunrise; 100 percent illuminated, 180 degrees elongation.
Waning Gibbous
Decreasing illumination decreasing between full and last quarter.
Last Quarter
Rises at midnight and sets at noon; 50 percent illuminated, 90 degrees west elongation.
Waning Crescent
Prominent just before sunrise; less than 50 percent illumination.
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Lyman series A distinct pattern of emission or absorption spectral lines that are caused by the transition of electrons to the ground state of hydrogen. These spectral lines appear at ultraviolet wavelengths. Since more electrons are in the ground state than in higher energy levels, Lyman series lines are usually more prominent in stellar spectra than lines of the Balmer Series.
See also
Balmer Series
spectrum
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Magellanic clouds Two companion galaxies of our own Milky Way, called the Large Magellanic Cloud (LMC) and the Small Magellanic Cloud (SMC). They are both irregular galaxies that are visible only from the Southern Hemisphere. |
magnetic field A force field generated by moving electrical charges, measured in units of Tesla or Gauss. An electrical current running through a loop of wire generates a magnetic field. The strength of the field depends on the current and area of the wire loop. Plasma churning through the atmosphere of the Sun drives powerful magnetic fields that sometimes produce relatively cool magnetic knots called sunspots. A magnetic dynamo in Earth's core generates a magnetic field around Earth. |
magnification In a telescope, an increase in the apparent size of an object. The process of magnification
expands the apparent size of an object by spreading the image, or light, across a large area. A large primary mirror or objective lens of a telescope focuses incoming light toward an eyepiece lens that magnifies what the telescope sees.
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magnifying power The ratio of the apparent image size as seen through optics to the actual size of an object. Telescope magnifying power is equal to the focal length of the objective lens or primary mirror divided by the focal length of the eyepiece. This is why the high power eyepieces are tiny, and the low power eyepieces are large.
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magnitude A measure of brightness, or faintness, as perceived by the human eye. In the system used by astronomers, the higher the magnitude, the fainter the object. The magnitude and apparent brightness of a star are related in a logarithmic fashion. For every five steps in magnitude, the apparent brightness of a star, galaxy, or nebula changes by a factor of 100. For example, we receive 100 times more light energy from Vega -- a zero-magnitude star -- than from Eta Ursa Minor -- a fifth-magnitude star in the Little Dipper. Under the clearest, darkest skies, your eye cannot see stars fainter than sixth magnitude. With the aid of binoculars, the human eye can detect 10th-magnitude stars.
The magnitude scale is organized logarithmically because that's the way our human eyes perceive brightness, whether it's light bulbs or stars. For instance, your eye would perceive the same brightness difference between a 25- and 50-watt light bulb as it would between a 100- and 200-watt light bulb. Likewise with stars, your eye would detect the same brightness difference between a first- and a second-magnitude star as it would between a second- and third magnitude star. If you repeat this exercise down to a sixth-magnitude star, the first-magnitude star's brightness (amount of light received on Earth) is 100 times the sixth-magnitude star.
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main sequence A group of stars on the H-R Diagram that all shine as a result of hydrogen thermonuclear fusion and are all in a state of hydrodynamic equilibrium. Stars spend the greatest portion of their luminous (nuclear fusion) life on the main sequence. |
mare Latin for "sea," it is an area of basalt rock on the surface of the Moon created relatively recently by oozing lava. The plural form of mare is maria. It is thought that most maria formed as a result of impacts on the Moon; lava bled from cracks made in the Moon's surface and filled craters to form the dark "seas" visible from Earth. Maria are the youngest and most crater-free regions on the Moon's surface. |
Mars The fourth planet from the Sun in the Solar System. Mars orbits the Sun at an average distance of 1.52 A.U.. The planet has a mass 0.1 times the mass of the Earth and a radius 0.5 times the radius of the Earth. It is made of solid, rocky material, and has a thin atmosphere of carbon dioxide. Iron oxide, or rust, on the surface of Mars gives it its characteristic red color. The planet has carbon dioxide ice (dry ice) caps at its poles. Mars also has two small moons, Phobos and Deimos. |
mass The amount of matter content of an object and a physical measure of inertia. Mass is measured in units called grams, and one gram is equal to the mass of one cubic centimeter of water at 4 degrees Celsius. Newton's Third Law states that mass is equal to the ratio of force to acceleration. Furthermore, Einstein's Theory of General Relativity states that mass and space are related, because mass warps space and space directs the motion of mass. |
matterThe material out of which all ordinary material is made. Protons, neutrons, and electrons are examples of matter, as is a piece of wood, a puddle of water, or an animal or plant. All matter has the properties that it occupies a volume and has inertia. The measure of the amount of matter in an object is that object's mass.
See also
antimatter
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Mercury The first planet from the Sun in the Solar System. Mercury orbits the Sun at an average distance of 0.4 A.U.. The planet has a mass 0.055 times the mass of the Earth and a radius 0.4 times the radius of the Earth. It is made of solid, rocky material that is heavily cratered, and it has no significant atmosphere. Mercury has no moons. |
meridianAn imaginary line in the sky that goes from the north pole, through an observer's zenith, to the south pole. Astronomical objects are best observed when they are crossing the meridian, because along that line, the least amount of Earth's atmosphere is in between the observer and an object. |
Messier catalogueA catalogue of about 110 astronomical objects compiled by French astronomer Charles Messier at the end of the 18th century. The catalogue includes objects such as nebulae, star clusters, and galaxies, and the objects are denoted by an M followed by a number from 1 to 110. |
meteor A meteoroid traveling between about 10 and 70 km/s that vaporizes within Earth's atmosphere because of intense friction between it and the air. From the ground, meteors are seen as shooting stars. |
meteor shower A spectacular display of meteors streaking through the sky at rates between several to
hundreds per hour. Whenever Earth intercepts a stream of comet debris in orbit around the Sun, some of the debris falls into Earth's atmosphere, producing the meteor shower. Meteor velocities usually fall within a range of about 10 km/s and 70 km/s.
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meteorite A space rock that strikes the surface of the Earth. Most meteorites are classified as stony
because of their mineral composition, which may include olivine, pyroxene, serpentine, sulfates, organic compounds, iron, and nickel.
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meteoroid A tiny grain of silicate or metal between 1 and 10 millimeters in size that orbits the Sun.
Sometimes meteoroids fall into Earth's atmosphere and become meteors.
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meterA unit of measurement of length. One meter is equal to 1.1 yards. Meters are abbreviated m. |
micrometerA unit of length used by astronomers and physicists to measure the wavelength of light. A micrometer is equal to one millionth of a meter, or 0.000001 meter. Micrometers are abbreviated ěm, and are also known as microns.
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micronA micrometer, or 0.000001 meter. Micron is simply a nickname for micrometer.
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microwave radiationA very unenergetic wavelength, or frequency, of light. Microwaves are a type of radio radiation, meaning that they are less energetic than infrared radiation. They are not harmful to life because they are not strong enough to ionize atoms or destroy cells. While the Earth's atmosphere shields us from some microwave radiation, it does allow some frequencies to pass through. Astronomers study these microwaves with large radio telescopes or antennas, which resemble giant satellite dishes. |
Milky Way Our galaxy.
The Milky Way is a spiral, or disk-shaped, galaxy with four major arms containing young bright stars, gas, and dust. From the Earth, the Milky Way is seen edge-on as a swath of patchy white glow in the sky. The mass of the entire Milky Way is estimated to be between 400 billion and one trillion solar masses, and the luminous diameter of the Galaxy is some 80,000 light-years across. The entire Solar System orbits the center of the Milky Way once every 200 million years at a distance of 25,000 light-years from the Galactic center, which is located in the direction of the constellation Sagittarius. Sometimes, astronomers refer to the Milky Way as the Galaxy.
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millimeterA unit of measure that is equal to 1/1000 of a meter, or about 0.04 inches. Millimeters are abbreviated mm.
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minute of arc A unit of angular measurement used by astronomers to describe angles in the sky. One minute of arc is equal to 1/60 of a degree, or about the diameter of a quarter as seen from 75 yards away. Minutes of arc are also known as an arc minutes. |
moonA natural satellite of a planet. |
Moon The largest natural satellite of the Earth. |
nanometerA unit of length used by astronomers and physicists to measure the wavelength of light. A nanometer is equal to one billionth of a meter, or 0.000000001 (10^-9) meter. Nanometers are abbreviated nm, and one nanometer is equal to 10 Angstroms.
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nebula A generic term for a fuzzy, diffuse astronomical object. Astronomers have observed four different types of nebulae: H II regions, reflection nebulae, planetary nebulae, and supernova remnants.
HII regions
A "stellar womb" composed of hydrogen, helium, interstellar gas and dust that is illuminated with the light and energy of new born stars. An example is the Orion Nebula (M 42), located in the constellation Orion.
reflection nebulae
A nebula that is mainly composed of cool interstellar dust that reflects and scatters light from nearby stars. These nebulae are mainly bluish in color. The blue color provides a clue to the size of the dust grains, because in order to scatter the blue light, the dust grain size must be close to the wavelength of blue light.
planetary nebulae
Contrary to their name, these nebulae have nothing to do with planets. A planetary nebula is created when a star in the last stage of its life puffs off its outer atmosphere. The nebula usually looks like a donut, sometimes with the small, hot, rapidly evolving star visible in the center. The Ring Nebula (M 57) in the constellation Lyra is an example.
supernova remnant
This type of nebula is the result of a |
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